The Political Structure and Economy of the Incan Empire
At its height in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Incan empire spanned modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, and parts of Colombia. It represented the largest and most sophisticated civilization ever to emerge in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans. The political structure and economic system of the Incas were key pillars enabling this empire to govern effectively and provide for its people.
Incan Political Structure
The Incas built a centralized government headed by a supreme ruler or emperor known as the Sapa Inca. The royal family lived in the capital city of Cusco. While each region had local leaders, the Sapa Inca possessed ultimate authority. This absolute power was aided by a belief system that positioned the Sapa Inca as a demigod — an intermediary between subjects and the gods. This divine right strengthened political obedience and unity across the diverse lands under Incan rule.
The empire was divided into four regions, each under the control of an appointed governor. Local ethnic groups were allowed to retain their customs and languages as long as they demonstrated fealty to the Sapa Inca through tribute and labor. The Incan bureaucracy was extremely efficient for its time. It included an elite class of nobles, priests, accountants, judges, and administrators who managed affairs across the empire.
The Incas did not develop advanced systems of writing. However, they used quipus — knotted ropes with colored threads — to meticulously record numerical data that allowed administrators to catalog people, track taxes, and measure crops stored in warehouses. Communication across the vast realm came via a network of roads and messengers who relayed information verbal and with quipus.
Economic Structure & Activities
The Incan economy was centrally managed, with production and distribution tightly controlled. The political bureaucracy oversaw economic activity, with surpluses flowing to the ruling elite.
Agriculture was the primary economic activity given the empire’s mountainous terrain. Using sophisticated techniques like terracing and irrigation canals, farmers grew crops like maize, potatoes, quinoa, beans, peppers, squash, cassava, and peanuts. The variety of crops and planting in diverse microclimates reduced risk of famine.
State storehouses of food reserves also reduced dependence on yearly harvest variations. Sophisticated agricultural planning allowed economic administrators to forecast production versus calorie needs across the population. Surpluses supported urban populations including armies, priests, and the ruling class.
The Incas also developed large-scale manufacturing capabilities. Production centers mass-produced utilitarian items like weapons, textiles, and pottery for state use and to equip armies. An extensive road system — over 10,000 miles long — allowed goods to flow across the empire. Llamas were used as pack animals to reach areas unconnected by roads.
Mining was another key activity, focused mainly on gold that was considered sacred along with silver to a lesser degree. Mine workers labored in harsh conditions but were compensated and fed by the state to keep production high. Gold was transformed into religious objects and used to decorate palaces and temples. It demonstrated Incan wealth but did not function as currency in daily economic exchange.
Labor Service & Taxation
Incan society had no currency. Economic activity centered on an exchange of labor between peasant subjects and ruling classes. Land was divided into three types: lands to support religious/government facilities, lands designated to feed the general populace, and lands set aside for the emperor.
Peasants were assigned fields to farm, the harvest of which they largely kept to feed themselves. But they also had to provide labor service for church, state, and emperor lands in exchange for this grant of their own productive fields. Nobles oversaw these labors including irrigation canal work, terrace building, mining, constructing government facilities, and harvesting crops on state lands.
Labor on state lands was not paid. However, workers or mitayos were provided food, lodging and coca leaves to sustain them. The Incan bureaucracy kept detailed accounts of who owed labor and for how long. Labor service had to be performed for a certain number of months decided by one’s social status and distance from the capital city of Cusco.
The Incas also demanded tribute from conquered groups in the form of specialized products from their region including foods, clothing, and luxury goods for the upper classes. Unlike European serfdom, the Incas did not impose perpetual bonded labor on lower classes. But activities were directed by the state towards economic goals and benefit for the ruling elite.
Incan Society and Social Welfare
The Incan empire featured a vertically stratified society topped by the emperor and royal family, followed by nobles and regional ethnic elite. Priestly and bureaucratic classes came next, then specialized craftsmen and merchants, and finally peasant farmers and herders making up the bulk of the population.
Social status shaped one’s economic duties and standard of living. Nobles lived lavishly and oversaw vital economic activities. Peasants lived modestly but were generally provided for under the controlled Incan system which met basics like housing and food. Social mobility was limited although some avenues like military service or craft mastery allowed climbing the hierarchy.
The Incas are remembered for innovative social welfare schemes that aided vulnerable groups. Granaries stored surplus harvests against famine. Orphans, widows, disabled and elderly were guaranteed food stipends. Health care included sanitary infrastructures like aqueducts and public baths. Medical treatments employed herbal remedies and basic surgeries.
The Incan system provided a livable social safety net for its era. While tightly controlled, it enabled an advanced civilization to thrive across challenging Andean environments from Ecuador to Chile for over four centuries until the Spanish conquest began in the 1530s. Studying Incan society offers lessons on effective economic planning and governance amid scarce resources.
Further Reading
- The Incas by Terence N. D’Altroy — A comprehensive overview of Incan history and culture. D’Altroy examines Incan political institutions, economic systems, and ideologies.
- The Ancient Kingdoms of Peru by Nigel Davies — Provides detailed insight into the rise and fall of Incan civilization alongside the pre-Incan cultures that preceded them.
- The Last Days of the Incas by Kim MacQuarrie — A gripping narrative history of the Spanish conquest, Incan resistance, and the downfall of the empire. Brings key personalities to life.
- Turn Right at Machu Picchu by Mark Adams — An adventurous travelogue mixed with historical insights into Incan society. Offers vivid on-the-ground perspectives at iconic Incan sites.
- Engineering the Inca Empire: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 18 and 19 October 1986 — Technical examinations of Incan innovations in architecture, agriculture, hydraulics, transportation and more. Illuminates the sophistication of Incan infrastructure.
- Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology by Brooke Larson and Olivia Harris— A scholarly analysis focusing on the interplay between the Incan state and local ethnic identities.
- The Incas: New Perspectives by Gordon Francis McEwan — A collection of academic essays on Incan history, culture, politics and archaeology that challenges some conventional interpretations.
This selection of books and papers provides greater detail and analysis of the Incan empire for delving deeper.
